Chord
Entry for EPMOW by Philip Tagg
chord: the simultaneous sounding of two or more different pitched notes by any polyphonic instrument or by any combination of instrument(s) and/or voice(s). The simultaneous sounding of notes of the same name, i.e. pitches separated by octave intervals, does not qualify as a chord (unison, polyphony, parallel intervals). Etymology: Greek chorde [cordh], via Latin’s chorda (= string of musical instrument), came to denote, in sixteenth-century Europe, the sounding together of different notes played on several instruments of the same family, especially strings.
Chords need not be heard as such by members of a musical tradition whose polyphony emphasises the interplay of independent melodic lines (counterpoint) much more strongly than music in the Western post-Renaissance tradition of melody and accompaniment. In most types of popular music chords are generally regarded as belonging to the accompaniment part of that dualism (see harmony).
Due to the global predominance of Western harmonic practices, it is useful to distinguish between two main categories of chord: (1) tertial, (2) non-tertial. (For explanation of non-tertial chords, see harmony, section 3b). Chords can be identified in both structural and phenomenological terms.
1 Structure and terminlogy of tertial chords
1.1 Tertial triads
Tertial chords are based on common triads (see below) and can be regarded as the fundamental harmonic building blocks in most forms of jazz, popular music and European classical music.
A triad is any chord containing three notes (cf. German Dreiklang). The common triad is constructed as two simultaneously sounding thirds, one superimposed on the other. For example c-e (a major third) together with e-g (minor third) constitute a C major triad, while d-f (minor third) with f-a (major third) makes for a D minor triad (ex.1).
There are four types of tertial triad: major, minor, diminished and augmented (see table 1). The first three of these triad types can be generated from the seven key-specific notes of any standard major or melodic minor scale (the ionian and aeolian modes). As shown in ex.1, major triads derive from degrees 1, 4 and 5 of the major and from degrees 3, 6 and 7 of the minor scale (e.g. C, F, G in C major / A minor), while minor triads are found at degrees 2, 3 and 6 of the major and at degrees 4, 5 and 1 of the minor scale (Dm, Em, Am). The major scale’s degree 7 and the minor scale’s degree 2 each produce a diminished triad. All four types of triad are set out, with C as their root, in table 1.
Ex.1 Tertial triads on each degree of C major / A minor scale
Major triads comprise a minor third on top of a major third (e-g over c-e for C), minor triads a major third over a minor third (e.g. e$-g over c-e$ for C minor), while augmented triads comprise two superimposed major thirds (e.g. e-g# over c-e) and diminished triads two minor thirds (e.g. e$-g$ over c-e$). All triadic chords contain the root (1) and, with very few exceptions, both third (3) and fifth (5) of one of the triad types defined in table 1.
Table 1: Tertial triad type definition (in C)
type of triad type of third type of fifth notes in chord lead symbol roman num.
major major perfect c e g C I
minor minor perfect c e$ g Cm i
augmented major augmented c e g#/a$ Caug / C+ I+
diminished minor diminished c e$ g$/f# Cdim / Co io
1.2 Tertial chord symbols
Two types of shorthand are in common use so that musicians can quickly identify tertial chords: (1) roman numerals (e.g. I, vi, ii7, V7) and (2) lead sheet chord symbols (e.g. C, Am, Dm7, G7).
1.2.1 Roman numerals
Ex.2 I vi ii7 V7 sequence in C and D major
Roman numerals are used to denote chords and their relation to the tonic of any key. More specifically, single roman numerals denote tertial triads built on the scale degree they designate — the root — within any particular key, upper case denoting major and lower case minor triads (see ex.1 whose root notes are c, d, e, f, g, a, b). Bearing in mind that pitches extraneous to the tertial triad, most frequently the seventh, are expressed as superscripted arabic numerals, it is clear that « I vi ii7 V7 » designates the same chord progression in any major key, whereas « C Am Dm7 G7 » and « D Bm Em7 A7 » designate the same sequence in two keys only (C and D major respectively, see ex. 2). Similarly, a repeated I $VII IV progression (C B$ F in C) is found as D C G (in D) throughout Lynyrd Skynyrd’s Sweet Home Alabama and as G F C at the end of the Beatles’ Hey Jude (in G). Note that tertial triads built on pitches foreign to the standard major or minor key of the piece must be preceded by the requisite accidental, for example « $VII » for a major triad built on b$ in the key of C major but just « VII » for the same chord in C minor. Similarly, notes within a tertial chord that are extraneous to the current key of the piece must also be preceded by the requisite accidental, e.g. « ii7$5 » for the second-degree chord in C major with d as root and containing also f, a$ and c.
1.2.2 Inversions
In most popular music the lowest note in a chord is usually also its root. However, in choral settings and in music influenced by the European classical tradition, tertial chords are frequently inverted, i.e. the third, fifth or seventh is the lowest pitch. The first three chords of example 3 show a C major common triad [1] in its root position (with c in the bass), [2] in its first inversion (with its third, e, in the bass) and [3] in its second inversion (with its fifth, g, in the bass). The final chord of example 3 is a C major triad with the flat seventh (b$) in the bass, i.e. a C7 chord in its third inversion (with its seventh, b$, as lowest note).
Ex.3 Inversions of C major chord
European textbook harmony symbols, derived from figured bass techniques of the baroque era (bottom line of symbols in ex. 3), are largely incompatible with the way in which chords are understood by musicians in the popular field. Therefore, when inversions need to be referred to they are most commonly denoted in the absolute terms of lead sheet chord symbols (top line in ex. 3), sometimes in the relative terms of roman numerals, as shown in the line of symbols between the two staves, i.e. as ‘I/3’ for the tonic triad with its third as bass note, ‘I/5’ for the same chord with its fifth in the bass, etc.
2 Recognition of tertial chords
Individual chords can be identified and named according to their constituent notes and harmonic functions (see harmony, lead sheet chord symbols). They can also be recognised phenomenologically. Table 2 lists some of the most common chords in popular music, together with striking occurrences of those chords in well-known pieces of popular music. It also shows, where applicable, in which musical styles or with what type of mood the chords are often associated.
Table 2: Familiar occurrences of tertial chords in popular music
chord
short-hand full chord
descrip-
tion Occurrences style
major triad First and final chord of most national anthems, White Christmas (Crosby 1942), the Internationale (Degeyter 1871), the Blue Danube waltz (Strauss 1867). All chords in chorus of Yellow Submarine (Beatles 1966). Final chord in Happy Birthday.
m minor triad First long chord in Pink Floyd’s Shine On Crazy Diamond (1975). First chord in It Won’t Be Long, She Loves You and I’ll Be Back (Beatles 1963, 1964). First and final chord in Chopin’s Funeral March (1839).
+ augmented triad Gershwin’s Swanee (1919) at “how I love you!”. Second chord in Being For The Benefit Of Mr Kite and Fixing A Hole (Beatles, 1967)
6 added sixth chord First chord, at ‘When whipperwills call’, in My Blue Heaven (Donaldson 1927). First and final chord in Mack The Knife (Weill, 1928); in chorus of Alabama Song, at ‘Moon of Alabama’ (Weill, 1927). Final ‘Yeah’ in She Loves You (Beatles, 1963). jazz influences 1920-40s
m6 minor triad with added (major) sixth First chord in verse of Alabama Song, at ‘Show us the way to the next’... (Weill, 1927). First chord after fanfare in the Wedding March (Mendelssohn, 1843).
7 (dominant) seventh chord Penultimate chord in most hymns and national anthems. First chord in Beatles’ I Saw Her Standing There (1963), I Wanna Be Your Man (1963), She’s A Woman (1964), Taxman (1966), Get Back (1969).
7+ seventh chord with augmented fifth Cole Porter (1933): You’re Bad For Me, upbeat to chorus. Miles Davis (1961): Some Day My Prince Will Come, second chord, at ‘day’. Mary Hopkins (1968): Those Were The Days, at ‘were the’ in upbeat to chorus. Beatles (1969): Oh! Darling, just after ‘broke down and died’ as upbeat to reprise of hook.
7$5 seventh chord with diminished fifth Jobim (1963): Garota da Ipanema, penultimate chord; (1964): Samba da una nota so, 4th chord; (1969) Desafinado, 2nd chord. bossa nova, bebop, jazz fusion
maj7 major seventh chord Cole Porter (1932): Night And Day, first chord of chorus. Erroll Garner (1960): Misty, first downbeat chord of main tune. Beatles (1963): This Boy, first chord. Tom Jones (1965): It’s Not Unusual, first chord. Burt Bacharach (1968): This Guy’s In Love With You, first three chords. Beatles (1969): Something, second chord. Bacharach (1970): Raindrops, second chord. jazz standards, pop 1960s-70s, bossa nova, Bacharach
m7 minor seventh chord Youmans (1925): Tea For Two, first chord (on ‘tea’). Bacharach (1964): Walk On By, first chord. Beatles (1965): Michelle, second chord; (1968): Rocky Racoon, 1st chord in hook; (1969): You Never Give Me Your Money, first chord. jazz standards, pop 1960s-70s
mmaj7/
mmaj9 minor, major seventh/ninth Hagen (1944): Harlem Nocturne (the ‘Mike Hammer’ theme), first downbeat chord of tune. Norman/Barry (1962): James Bond Theme, final chord. detective and spy music
m7$5 minor seven flat five or ‘half diminished’ Addinsell (1940): Warsaw Concerto, 2nd chord. Miles Davis (1973): Stella By Starlight, 1st chord. Nat King Cole (1955): Autumn Leaves (Cosma), 1st chord of middle eight. romantic pop ‘classics’, romantic ballads
dim diminished seventh chord Beatles (1963): Till There Was You, 2nd chord (at ‘hill’); (1967): Strawberry Fields, at ‘nothing is real’. usual horror chord in silent movies.
9 (dominant) ninth chord Beatles (1964): Things We Said Today, at ‘dreaming’ (‘some day when we’re dreaming’); (1968): Because, highlighted chord at ‘round’/‘high’/‘blue’. swing, bebop,
+9 plus nine chord Hendrix (1967): Purple Haze, 1st chord. Beatles (1968): Come Together, 1st chord. Blood Sweat & Tears (1969): Spinning Wheel, first chord. rock c. 1970, jazz fusion
maj9 ninth chord with major seventh Jobim (1963): The Girl from Ipanema, 1st chord. bossa nova, 1960s
m9 minor nine chord Warren (1938): Jeepers Creepers, 1st chord of chorus. Weill (1943): Speak Low, 1st chord in chorus. Raksin (1944) Laura, 1st chord in chorus. jazz standards
11 chord of the eleventh Righteous Brothers (1965): You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feeling, 1st chord. Beatles (1967): She’s Leaving Home, at ‘leaving the note’, ‘standing alone’, ‘quietly turning’, ‘stepping outside’, ‘meeting a man’; (1970): Long And Winding Road, at first occurrence of ‘road’. Zawinul (1977): Mercy Mercy, ‘Gospel’ chord after unison runup just before minor key section. Abba (1977): Name of the Game, at repeated ‘I want to know’. gospel,
soul,
fusion,
modal jazz
m11 minor eleven chord Miles Davis (1959): So What, all chords. Goldenberg (1973): Kojak Theme, first two chords under melody. modal jazz
13 chord of the thirteenth Degeyter (1871): Internationale, upbeat to chorus. Big Ben Banjo Band (1958): Luxembourg Waltz, 1st chord (upbeat). Beatles (1968): Because, just before ecstatic “Ah!” on D chord. pre-jazz,
swing,
bebop
add9 major triad with added ninth Bacharach (1970): Close To You, 1st chord (at ‘why do birds suddenly appear?’) Nilsson (1974): Without You, 1st chord. pop ballads
madd9 minor triad with added ninth Al Hirt (1966): Music To Watch Girls By, 1st chord. Lionel Richie (1983): Hello, 1st chord. Rota (1966): Romeo and Juliet, main theme, 1st chord. wistful, sad or bitter-sweet ballads
/3 major triad in first inversion Beach Boys (1966): God Only Knows, hook line at ‘knows what I’d be’. Foundations (1967): Baby, Now That I’ve Found You, at ‘let you go’ and ‘even so’. Procol Harum (1967): Homburg, 3rd and 4th chords in introduction. ‘classical’
/5 major triad in second inversion Beach Boys (1966): God Only Knows, 1st chord. Foundations (1967): Baby, Now That I’ve Found You, at ‘love you so’. Procol Harum (1970): Wreck of the Hesperus, start of major key section. ‘classical’
m/5 minor triad in second inversion Simon & Garfunkel (1966): Homeward Bound, 2nd chord
Sinatra (1969): My Way, 2nd chord. reflective ballads, ‘classical’
7/7 seventh chord in third inversion Beach Boys (1966): God Only Knows, at ‘are stars above you’. Foundations (1967): Baby, Now That I’ve Found You, at ‘now that I’ve found you’. Procol Harum (1967): Homburg, 2nd chord. Abba (1974): Waterloo, 2nd chord, on the of ‘oo’ of ‘At Waterloo’ in verse 1. ‘classical’
maj7/7 major triad with major seventh in bass Procol Harum (1967): Whiter Shade Of Pale, 2nd chord.
Eric Clapton (1974): Let It Grow, 2nd chord. ‘classical’, reflective
sus4 suspended fourth chord
quartal chord Beatles (1965): You’ve Got To Hide Your Love Away, at ‘away’.
Rolling Stones (1965): Satisfaction, 2nd of two chords in main riff
Marvin Gaye (1966): Ain’t No Mountain, 1st chord in introduction. pop 1960s-70s
List of musical references
Abba (1974): Waterloo. Epic EPC 2240. Also on Abba – The Hits Vol. 1. Pickwick PWKS 593, 1990.
Abba (1981): One of Us. Epic EPCA 1740. Also on Abba – The Hits Vol. 3, Pickwick PWKS 507, 1988.
Addinsell, R (1942): Warsaw Concerto. London: Keith Prowse.
Bacharach, B (1964): Walk On By, as recorded by Dionne Warwick, Pye International 7N 25241.
Bacharach, B (1968): This Guy’s In Love With You, as recorded by Herb Alpert, A&M AMS 727.
Bacharach, B (1970): Raindrops, as recorded by Bobbie Gentry, Capitol CL 15626.
Bacharach, B (1970): Close To You, as recorded by The Carpenters, A&M AMLS 998.
Beach Boys (1966): ‘God Only Knows’. Pet Sounds. Capitol DT 2458.
Beatles (1963): She Loves You. Parlophone R 5055.
Beatles (1963): ‘I Saw Her Standing There’. Please Please Me. Parlophone PMC 1202.
Beatles (1963): ‘It Won’t Be Long’, ‘I Wanna Be Your Man’, ‘Till There Was You’. With the Beatles. Parlophone PMC 1206.
Beatles (1963): I Wanna Hold Your Hand b/w This Boy. Parlophone R 5084.
Beatles (1964): ‘I’ll Be Back’, ‘Things We Said Today’. A Hard Day’s Night. Parlophone PMC 1230.
Beatles (1965). ‘You’ve Got To Hide Your Love Away’. Help. Parlophone PMC 1255.
Beatles (1965): ‘Michelle’. Rubber Soul. Parlophone PMC 1267.
Beatles (1966): ‘Taxman’, ‘Yellow Submarine’. Revolver. Parlophone. PMC 7009.
Beatles (1967): Penny Lane b/w Strawberry Fields. Parlophone R 5570.
Beatles (1967): ‘Being For The Benefit Of Mr Kite’, ‘Fixing A Hole’, ‘She’s Leaving Home’. Sergeant Pepper. Parlophone PCS 7027.
Beatles (1968): ‘Rocky Racoon’. White Album. Parlophone PMC 7067/8.
Beatles (1968): Hey Jude b/w Revolution. Apple R 5722.
Beatles (1969): ‘Because’, ‘Come Together’, ‘Oh! Darling’, ‘Something’, ‘You Never Give Me Your Money’. Abbey Road. Apple PCS 7088.
Beatles (1969): Get Back. Apple R 5777.
Beatles (1970): ‘The Long And Winding Road’. Let It Be. Apple PCS 7096.
Big Ben Banjo Band (1958): The Luxembourg Waltz. Columbia DB 4181.
Blood Sweat & Tears (1969): ‘Spinning Wheel’. Blood, Sweat and Tears. CBS 63504.
Chopin, F (1839): ‘Marche funèbre’ from sonata, op. 35. Motion Picture Moods for Pianists and Organists (ed. E. Rapée). New York: Schirmer, 1924; reprint New York: Arno Press, 1974.
Clapton, E (1974): ‘Let It Grow’. 461 Ocean Boulevard. RSO 2479118.
Cole, Nat King (1955): Autumn Leaves (V. Cosma) b/w Love Is A Many Splendoured Thing. Capitol CL 14364.
Crosby, B (1942): ‘White Chistmas’ (Berlin). Best of Bing Crosby. Decca DXS-184, 1965.
Davis, M (1959): ‘So What’. Kind of Blue. CBS 62066.
Davis, M (1961): Some Day My Prince Will Come. CBS 8456.
Davis, M (1973): ‘Stella By Starlight’. Basic Miles. CBS 65343.
Degeyter, P (1871): ‘Internationale’. Chants révolutionnaires. Paris, 1887 (posth.).
Donaldson, W (1927): My Blue Heaven. New York: Leo Feist Inc.
Foundations, The (1967): Baby, Now That I’ve Found You. Pye 7N13766.
Garner, E (1960): Misty, as recorded by Johnny Mathis, Fontana H 219.
Gaye, M (1966): Ain’t No Mountain. Tamla Motown STML 11062.
Gershwin, G (1919): Swanee. New York: Harms, Francis Day & Hunter.
Goldenberg, W (1973): Kojak Theme, full score. Universal City Studios Prod. no. 39000.
Hagen, E (1944): Harlem Nocturne for E$ Concert Sax and Orchestra. New York: Shapiro & Bernstein.
Hendrix, J (1967): Purple Haze. Track 604001.
Hirt, A (1966): Music To Watch Girls By. RCA 47-9060.
Hopkins, M (1968): Those Were The Days. Apple 2.
Jobim, A C (1963): Garota da Ipanema. New York: Duchess Mus. Corp.
Jobim, A C (1964): Samba da una nota so b/w Corcovado (‘Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars’). Verve 10327.
Jobim, A C (1969): Desafinado. Rio de Janeiro: Editoral Musical Arapué.
Jones, T (1965): It’s Not Unusual (G Mills, L Reed). Decca F 12062.
Mendelssohn, F (1843). Wedding March from A Midsummer Night’s Dream, arr. for organ by C.W. Pearce. London: Paxton.
Nilsson, H (1974): ‘Without You’. Son of Dracula. RCA APK 10220.
Norman, M (1962): The James Bond Theme, as recorded by the John Barry Orchestra, Columbia DB 4898.
Pink Floyd (1975): ‘Shine On You Crazy Diamond’. Wish You Were Here. Harvest SHVL 814
Porter, C (1973): Night And Day. New York: Harms.
Porter, C (1933): You’re Bad For Me, as recorded by Al Bowlly with Ray Noble and his Orchestra, Monmouth-Evergreen MES/6816, n.d.
Procul Harum (1967): Whiter Shade Of Pale. Deram DM 126.
Procol Harum (1967): Homburg. Regal Zonophone RZ 3003.
Procol Harum (1970): ‘Wreck of the Hesperus (Valkyrie)’. A Salty Dog. Regal Zonophone, SLRZ 1009.
Raksin, D (1944): Laura, as recorded by Dick Haymes, Decca 18666, 1945.
Richie, L (1983): Hello. Motown TMG 1330 (also on Can’t Slow Down, Tamla Motown ZL 72020).
Righteous Brothers (1965): You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feelin (Spector, Mann, Weil) London HLU 9943.
Rolling Stones (1965): (I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction. Decca F 12220.
Rota, N (1966): ‘Romeo and Juliet’ (main theme), as recorded by the Tony Hatch Orchestra on Hit the Road to Themeland, Pye NSPL 41029, 1974.
Simon and Garfunkel (1966): Homeward Bound. CBS 202045
Sinatra, F (1969): My Way (Revaux, François). Reprise RS 20817.
Strauss, J (Jr.) (1867). An der schönen blauen Donau, as recorded by Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra on Strauss Waltzes, CBS Odyssey MBK 44892, 1979.
Warren, H (1938): ‘Jeepers Creepers’, as recorded on Louis Armstrong 1938-1939, CD Classics 523, n.d.
Weill, K (1927): ‘Alabama Song’ from Mahagonny, as recorded on September Songs – The Music of Kurt Weill, various artists, Sony CD 63046, 1997.
Weill, K (1928): ‘Mack the Knife’ (‘Moritat von Macki Messer’) from Die Dreigroschenoper, as recorded by the Lewis Ruth-Band on Entartete Musik, BOD 65053, 1988.
Weill, K (1943): ‘Speak Low’ September Songs, Sony CD 63046, 1997.
Youmans, V (1925): Tea For Two, as on Benny Goodman: His Best Recordings, Best of Jazz 4007, 1996.
Zawinul, J (1977): Mercy Mercy, as recorded by Jaco Pastorius on Curtain Call, Another Hit 2001, 1986.
